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alsamixer
The other thing to check is that (in Windows) you don't have any special keys selected to mute sound (eg my laptop will mute with Fn/F8 in windows, but not Linux) This should be reflected in in the output of alsamixer but sometimes you just don't know.
Lastly, and I admit this has more to do with blind prejudice than anything else, so only try it as a last resort, but when you are in Ubuntu open Synaptic type 'pulse' into the quicksearch bar and see if you have pulseaudio installed. If you do then remove it, in fact remove anything that has 'pulseaudio' in the description - PROVIDED - it doesn't threaten to remove anything you think you might want to use.
Well, there you have it, the sum total of my knowledge about Linux sound systems. Not much is it, but at least I had a try!